Sentence

 

Notes by  Reazul Razib

A Sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete idea or thought.

A sentence has a subject and a predicate.

Sentence are syntactically  and sementically two types.

1.Syntactical sentence

Simple, compound and complex.

2.Sementical sentence

Asserstive,Interrogative,Imperative,Optative and Exclamatory.

Syntactical sentence❤️

a)Simple sentence

It has only one finite verb

b)Compound sentence

It has two clauses and every clause is independent and connected with conjunctions FANBOYS

for,and,nor,but,or,yet,so,however,moreover,therefore,otherwise,not only....but also,Both......and,either.....or,neither....nor,or else.

c)Complex sentece

It has two clauses;one is dependent/subordinate and the other one is independent/principal.

Subordinate clauses are

i)Nominative/noun/appositive clause

ii)Relative/adjective clause

iii)Adverbial clause

Clauses are connected with conjunctions ;

What,which,why,how,when,where,whereas,while, if,if,though,although,till,untill,unless.

Note:🌺

Simple➤comp➤complex

Without > or>if

By > and> after

2.Sementical sentence❤️

a)assertive sentence (বিবৃতি মূলক)🌺

Sub+verb+object+extension+full stop.

b)Interrogative sentence (প্রশ্ন মূলক)🌺

i) W/H words+auxiliary verb+sub+main verb+obj+extension+?

ii)Auxiliary verb+sub+main verb+obj+extension+?

iii)Who+verb+obj+extension+?

c)Imperative sentence (আদেশ সূচক)🌺

i)Verb+obj+ex+full stop.

ii)Let+indirect obj+verb+direct object+ex+full stop.

d)Optative sentence ( দোয়া প্রার্থনা মূলক)🌺

May/wish+sub+verb+obj+ex+full stop.

e)Exclamatory sentence (বিশ্ময় সূচক) 🌺

i)How+adjective+sub+be verb+!

ii)what+a/an+adj+noun+sub+be verb+!

Finite Verb

 Notes by Reazul Razib

There are two type of finite verbs

1)Principal/Lexical verb

2)Auxiliary/Helping verb

1.Principal verb are tow types❤️

i)Transitive

Verbs that have no object.

ii)Intransitive 

Verbs that have objects

a)Mono transitive (a single object)

b)Ditransitive 

A ditransitive verb has a direct object(impersonal noun) and an indirect object (personal noun/pronoun)

More classification of lexical verbs.

1.State verb vs Action verb ❇️

state verb" describes a state of being, thought, or perception, while an "action verb" describes a physical action.

🌺State verb examples: "know," "believe," "love," "hate," "own," "understand," "seem," "appear" 

Generally cannot be used in continuous tenses (e.g., "I am knowing" is incorrect) 

 🌺Action verb examples: "run," "walk," "eat," "sleep," "jump," "talk," "write" 

It could be used in a continuous tense.

E.G. I'm running

2.Eragative verbs❇️

Verbs that have both transitive and intransitive forms.

I closed the door.

The door closed

3.Causative verb❇️

Verbs that used to cause someone to do something.

Causative verbs are

let, allow, permit, make, force, require, get, have, help, and keep.

I will make you wash my shoes.

4.Factative verb❇️

A factitive verb is a verb that indicates an action that results in a change or creation.

For example, "paint" and "make" are factitive verbs in the sentences "I painted it red" and "They made her captain". 

Examples of factitive verbs: 

elect, appoint, choose, deem, assign, name, select, judge, designate, and nominate.

Note: Factitive verbs have direct objects and object complements. 

5.Linking/Copulative verb✳️

A linking verb is a verb that connects the subject of a sentence to more information about it.

Linking verbs do not show action, but rather describe the subject as a complement.

Examples of linking verbs: 

Be verb: "She is intelligent"

Seem: "He seems confident"

Become: "She became a doctor"

Look: "He looks tired"

Feel: "I feel happy"

Sound: "The music sounds soothing"

Remain: "He remains calm under pressure"

Grow: "The plants grow quickly in the sunlight".

6.Cognate verb❇️

A cognate verb is a verb that uses its noun form as an object. The noun form is called a cognate object.

He dreamt a dream.

He slept a sound sleep

2.Auxiliary verb❤️

Verbs that help lexical verbs in sentence.

A)Primary Auxiliary

i)Have verb

Have/has/had

i)Do verb

Do/does/did

iii)Be verb

Am,is,are,was,were,shall be,will be,etc

B)Modal Auxiliary

Shall,should,will,would,can,could,may,might,ought to,have to,has to,need to,dare to,be going to,had better,needn't,daren't.

Note: dare/need+not=modal verb

Adverb

 

Notes by Reazul Razib

1 Adverbs Of Manner

Adverbs of manner are words that describe how an action is performed. They provide more information about the way something happens, adding details to verbs. 

Eg. Sheila sang beautifully during the concert, mesmerizing the audience with her melodious voice.

2 Adverbs Of Time

Adverbs of time are words or phrases that provide information about when an action takes place. They indicate specific points in time or time intervals in relation to the action being described. These adverbs help establish the timing of events and actions in a sentence, providing context and helping readers understand the temporal aspect of the narrative.

Eg. She will arrive shortly to pick up the package.

3 Adverbs Of Place

Adverbs of place are words or phrases that provide information about the location or position of an action or event. They help to describe where the action is happening, whether it's indoors, outdoors, nearby, far away, or in a specific direction. 

Eg. She looked everywhere for her lost keys.

4 Adverbs Of Frequency

Adverbs of frequency are words or phrases that provide information about how often an action or event takes place. They convey the regularity or repetition of an action, whether it occurs frequently, occasionally, rarely, always, or never.

Eg. She exercises daily to maintain her fitness.

5 Adverbs Of Degree

Adverbs of degree express the intensity, extent, or level of an action, adjective, or adverb in a sentence. They modify these elements to convey how much or to what degree something is happening or is true. 

Eg. She was extremely delighted with the surprise party.

6 Conjunctive Adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs are transitional words or phrases that connect and relate ideas within sentences or between sentences. They act as bridges, helping to clarify relationships like cause-and-effect, contrast, comparison, or sequence. They're often used to create smoother transitions and provide context for the reader to understand how different ideas connect.

Eg. She wanted to go to the party; however, she was feeling unwell.

7 Focusing Adverbs

Focusing adverbs are words that emphasise or highlight a specific part of a sentence, drawing attention to a particular aspect. They provide added emphasis, often narrowing down or intensifying the meaning of the verb, adjective, or adverb they modify.

Eg. She specifically asked for a vegan option at the restaurant.

8 Interrogative Adverbs

Interrogative adverbs are like question starters in sentences. They introduce questions that seek information about different aspects of an action or event. They help clarify the context of a question by indicating what specific detail is being inquired about.

Eg. Where did you find that rare book?

Relative Adverbs

Relative adverbs are words that connect a main clause to a dependent (or relative) clause. They provide additional information about the nouns in the main clause, clarifying aspects like place, time, reason, or manner.

Eg. I visited the park where we used to play as children.

Note: It is not an adverbial clause because it(where) modifies the noun (the park) not verb (visited)

Adjective

 

Notes by Reazul Razib

1.Types of adjective❤️

A)Descriptive adjectives 

Describe or express the quality of a noun or pronoun

B)Interrogative adjectives 

Modify a noun or pronoun by asking a question

Examples include "what", "which", and "whose"

C)Demonstrative adjectives 

Identify a noun or pronoun by expressing its position as near or far

D)Possessive adjectives 

Show ownership or possession

Examples include "my", "your", "his", "her", "our", "their", and "its"

E)Proper adjectives 

Derived from a proper noun and are therefore capitalized

Examples include words for nationalities

F)Compound adjectives 

Two or more adjectives that work together as one to modify a noun or pronoun

Examples include "soft-spoken" and "well-known"

G)Numeral adjectives 

Give us the idea about how many persons or things are meant, or in what order the noun stands

H)Superlative adjectives 

Indicate different degrees or levels of a quality or characteristic

2.Order of adjective❤️

In English, the order of adjectives is usually determined by the order of DOSA-SCOMP: 

D: Determiner

O: Opinion

S: Size

A: Age

S: Shape

C: Color

O: Origin

M: Material

P: Purpose

Examples 

"My favorite big old square white French cotton gardening hat"

"A beautiful, mysterious song"

Pronoun

 Notes by Reazul Razib

1.Personal/impersonal pronoun

E.g I,you,we,he,she,they, (it)

2.Demonstrative pronoun

E.g That,Those,this,these,such

3.Distributive Pronoun

E.g Each,either,neither

4.Interrogative pronoun

E.g what, which, who, whom, and whose

5.Indefinite Pronoun

E.g Anyone,Everyone,Any,Each,Nobody,Both,Either,None,One,Another,Anything,Few,Someone,Many,Some

6.Intensive/Emphatic Pronoun

E.G Myself,herself,yourself

I did it myself

7.Possessive Pronoun

Mine,yours,ours,theirs,his,hers,its,Rahims's

8.Relative Pronoun

E.g which, that, whose, whoever, whomever, who, and 

9.Reflexive Pronoun

E.gMyself,herself,himself,yourself

He killed himself

10.Reciprocal Pronoun

E.g One another,each other

Sub➤obj➤poss. Adj➤poss. Pro➤reflexive.

I-me-my-mine-myself

You-you-your-yours-yoursefYou-you-your-yours-yoursef/yourselves

Thou-thee-thy-thine-thyself

She-her-her-hers-herself

He-him-his-his -himself

It-it-its-its-itself

One-one-one's-one's-oneself

Karim-Karim-Karim's-Karim's-Karim

Who-whom-whose-whose-whom

Structure:

Sub+verb+obj

Possessive Adjective+noun/gerund

Cases

Notes by Reazul Razib

Case is determined by the syntactic or semantic function of a noun or pronoun. 

There are four types of case.

1.Nominative/subjective case

Ex: Rahim,Rahima,I,you,we,they,she,it.

2.Objective case

a)Accusative/direct object 

(impersonal noun)

Ex:The book,footbal,the pen

b)Dative/indirect object

(personal pronoun)

Ex:Rahim,Rahima,me,you,us,them,him,

her,it.

3.Genitive/Possessive case

a)Possessive adjective

Ex:My,your,our,their,her,his,its,Rahim's.

b)Possessive pronoun

Ex: Mine,yours,hers,his,its,Rahim's

4.Vocative case

Rahim,come here.

Noun

 

Notes by Reazul Razib

There are five types of nouns.

4 are concrete nouns (appearable/দৃশ্যমান)

1.Proper noun ➤ নির্দিষ্টতা

(Dhaka,September,January,Rahim)

2.Common noun➤জাত

 (girls,boys,city,country)

3.Collective noun ➤ সমষ্টি

(Police,army)

4.Material noun ➤ উপাদান

 (wood,iron)

1 is abstract noun ➤ অদৃশ্য

(Anger,love,hate)

Among these 2 nouns are uncountable;

(গননা করা যায় না)

1.Material noun

2.Abstract noun

1.Proper noun❤️

Note1:Cardinal number doesn't take article but ordinal number does.

Ex:Rabindra was born in 1861.

Rabindra is the 4th child of his parents.

Note2: Usually a proper noun doesn't take an article but some nouns take definite article.

Ex:

The Suez Canal(canal),

The netherlands(country),

The Titanic(Ship),

The Padma(river),

The Daily Star(newspaper),

The Himalays(mountain),

The Rajshahi Express(vehicle),

The west(way),

The west Indies/The Phillipines(Island),

The Sahara(desert),

The Atlantic(ocean).

Note3: To specify a thing of somewhere,article is used and both noun should start with capital letter.

Ex:

The Dhaka univerity❌

 Dhaka University✅

The University of Dhaka✅

Note: To say a unknown name, a/an/one/some could be used to mean ➤(জনৈক)

Ex:Some Rahim came.

An Omar is rarely born.

Note4:Definite article may be used to convert a proper noun to a common noun.

Ex.Nazrul is the PB Shelley of BD.

2.Common noun❤️

Noun that refers to a specific racial people or things.

Ex: 

I like mango❌

I like mangoes/a mango✅

Cow lives on grass❌

A/the cow lives on grass✅

Cows live on grass✅

Note 1: When a common noun refers to a certain area then it could be plural 

(The+plural noun+of+area)

Ex: The cows of Australia are healthy.

Note 2: Food related common noun could be a material noun.

Ex:Mango is my favourite food.

Note 3: The+adjective=plural common noun.

Ex: The rich are not always happy.

Note 4: man and woman as singular nouns without article means whole kind.

Ex: 

Man is mortal.

Woman is man's mate.

Note 5: Abstrac noun as a common plural noun.

Ex:I faced many difficulties in the past.

Note 6: Material noun as plural common noun.

Ex:He was put in irons.

3.Collective noun❤️

Usually collective nouns take singular verb but some nouns take plural verb.

If verb takes singular,pronoun should singular and plural verb for plural pronoun.

Note 1:Nouns that considered plural;

Police,cattle,poultry,gentry,peasantry,vermin,aristocracy,people,mob.

Note 2: 

a)when a noun refers to unity,takes singular verb.

Ex 

The jury is at one in its opinion.

b)But when refers to division,takes plural verb.(noun of multitude)

Ex.

The jury are divided in their opinions.

Note 3: Some determiners are used to make collective nouns.

Ex: a flock of birds,a bar of chocolat,a basket of oranges,a herd of cows,a shoal of fish,a pile of apples,cars,a board of directors,a pack of wolves,a batch of students,a grove of trees,a clump of bamboos,a cluster of words,a brood of chickens.

a wad of cash,a heap of clothes,a stack of glasses,a queue of cars,

4.Material/Mass noun❤️

Nouns that refers to element or substance and they are uncountable singular noun.

Example: Gold,wood,mutton,paper,chalk,poultry,water,etc.

Note 1:Material nouns are  singular noun but we can use some determiners to make them plural.

Ex: Two pieces of chalk

Note 2: To specify a thing, definite article could be used. 

Ex: The water of the class is pure.

Note 3:Material nouns can be plural using s/es but meaning is different.

Ex:

Paper(কাগজ)=papers(নথি)

Wood(কাঠ)=woods(বন)

water(পানি)=waters(জলাশয়)

Iron(লোহা)=Irons(শিকক)

Sand(বালু)=Sands(মরুভূমি)

Air(বাতাস)=airs(গর্বিত ভাব)

He is a man of airs.

5.Abstract noun❤️

Nouns that refers to quality,action or state of a thing.Abstrac nouns are two types ;countable and uncountable.

Example: English(language),baseball(recreation),swimming(activity),weather(nature)

Note 1: countable abstract nouns;

Singular form refers to abstrac noun and plural form refers to common noun.

Ex:

Arrival-arrivals

Difficult - Difficulties

Note 2: Uncountable abstract nouns are always singular.

Ex:

Information,advice,love,ect

Note 3: Using definite article, a common noun could be converted to  an abstract noun.

Ex:

a)The mother rose in her.

The mother=motherhood.

b)The fox in him surprised me.

The fox=behavior like the fox

⚠️ Important note: Using s/es,article and determiners, any type of nouns could be converted to a common plural noun.

Ex: There are several (committees) in our school.

The (armies) of the (allies) have been defeated.